• Thermal and compositional evolution emerges as a core methodological theme, through parameterized convection, thermal history calculations, viscosity, and core-mantle interactions, shaping Earth’s internal structure models [6], [10], [11], [16], [17], [19], [20].

• Seismology-based interior probing dominates efforts, using oscillations, earthquake-triggered modes, and geodesy data to infer mantle-core properties and deep structure [3], [4], [13], [16].

• Geodynamic structure and mantle-core coupling underlie tectonics, with core models, mantle composition, and iron melting relations informing tectonic and thermal regimes [5], [8], [9], [15].

• Rotation dynamics and geodesy provide an integrative framework for linking internal flows to surface observations, constraining Earth’s angular momentum and core-mantle interactions [1], [7], [14].

• Observational synthesis and global Earth system modeling through constrained models and meteoritics to connect interior structure with surface climatology and planetary science [2], [12], [16].